Tag: Minute Earth

What Nuclear Bombs Taught Us About Whales

A monitoring system developed to listen for secret nuclear tests mostly hears other events happening all around Earth.

Thanks to CTBTO for sponsoring this video: https://www.ctbto.org/

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth

Visit our NEW WEBSITE: https://www.minuteearth.com/
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If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Infrasound: sound waves too low in frequency for humans to hear. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 0.02 to 4Hz
Hydroacoustic: having to do with underwater sounds. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 1-100 Hz
Seismic: oscillation waves in the earth, often caused by earthquakes or other tectonic activity. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 0.02-16 Hz
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Alex Reich
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Jesse Agar
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Ever Salazar, Emily Elert, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

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If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
Animals can detect infrasound: http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2004/12/surviving_the_tsunami.html

A Time-Lapse Map of Every Nuclear Explosion Since 1945: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLCF7vPanrY

Sound travels 1000s of miles in the ocean’s SOFAR channel: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOFAR_channel

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Sounds in the video that were recorded by CTBTO stations:

0:32 Kasatoshi volcano eruption in August 2008, detected 2100km away at infrasound station on mainland Alaska. Sped up 500x https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasatochi_Island

0:35 Explosion of Antares rocket in October 2014, detected 1100km away at Bermuda infrasound station. Sped up 150x https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_CRS_Orb-3 and video: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antares_Fails_to_Reach_Orbit_with_Cygnus_CRS-3_after_Rocket_Explodes.webm

0:37 Ship engine detected June 1 2017 by hydroacoustic station. Sped up 16x

0:40 Waves hitting an iceberg and causing it to vibrate like a cymbal in July 2010. Detected by hydroacoustic station off of Western Australia. Sped up 16x

1:01 Whale call Feb 18 2017, detected by hydroacoustic station. Sped up 16x

1:08 Chelyabinsk meteor airburst February 15 2013, detected by infrasound station 650km away in Kazakhstan. Sped up 135x

1:39 Earthquake Jan 2 2017, detected by infrasound station. Sped up 16x

2:00 Sound with unknown cause, detected by hydroacoustic station. March 25 2017. Sped up 16x

References

Brown, P. G., et al. 2013. A 500-kiloton airburst over Chelyabinsk and an enhanced hazard from small impactors. Nature, 503(7475), 238-241. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12741

Gavrilov, A. May 2017, Personal communication

Graham, G. May 2017, Personal communication

Harabalus, G. May 2017, personal communication

LeBras, R. May 2017, personal communication

Mialle P., May 2017, personal communication

Miksis-Old, J. May 2017, personal communication

Nielsen, P., May 2017, personal communication

Le Pichon, A., et al. 2013. The 2013 Russian fireball largest ever detected by CTBTO infrasound sensors. Geophysical Research Letters, 40(14), 3732-3737. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/grl.50619/full

The Weird Sex Lives of Bluegills

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When it comes to the mating game, fish have some of the strangest ways of thwarting the competition.

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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
– Alternative mating strategy: a strategy used by male or female animals, often with distinct phenotypes, that differs from the prevailing mating strategy.
– Dependent selection: an evolutionary process by which the fitness of a phenotype or genotype depends on the phenotype or genotype composition of a given population.

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CREDITS
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Ruis | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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REFERENCES
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Dominey, Wallace J. “Female Mimicry in Male Bluegill Sunfish—a Genetic Polymorphism?” Nature, vol. 284, no. 5756, Apr. 1980, pp. 546–548, https://doi.org/10.1038/284546a0

“Evolution of Alternative Reproductive Strategies: Frequency-Dependent Sexual Selection in Male Bluegill Sunfish | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 2022, royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1991.0033

Gross, Mart R. “Alternative Reproductive Strategies and Tactics: Diversity within Sexes.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol. 11, no. 2, Feb. 1996, pp. 92–98, https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(96)81050-0

Gross, Mart R. “Sneakers, Satellites and Parentals: Polymorphic Mating Strategies in North American Sunfishes.” Zeitschrift Für Tierpsychologie, vol. 60, no. 1, 12 Jan. 1982, pp. 1–26, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1982.tb01073.x

Jukema, Joop, and Theunis Piersma. “Permanent Female Mimics in a Lekking Shorebird.” Biology Letters, vol. 2, no. 2, 10 Jan. 2006, pp. 161–164, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0416

Neff, B. D. “Genetic Paternity Analysis and Breeding Success in Bluegill Sunfish (Lepomis Macrochirus).” Journal of Heredity, vol. 92, no. 2, 1 Mar. 2001, pp. 111–119, https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/92.2.111

Neff, B. D. “Sperm Investment and Alternative Mating Tactics in Bluegill Sunfish (Lepomis Macrochirus).” Behavioral Ecology, vol. 14, no. 5, 1 Sept. 2003, pp. 634–641, https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arg032

Neff, Bryan D., and Erik I. Svensson. “Polyandry and Alternative Mating Tactics.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 368, no. 1613, 5 Mar. 2013, p. 20120045, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0045

Neff, Bryan. Personal Communication

MinuteEarth: The Story of Our Planet

Our first video ever! Agriculture, hula hoops, SARS, and THIS video: how long did they take to get around the earth?

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Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Rose Eveleth, Emily Elert, and John Guittar.
Music by Nathaniel Schroeder http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
Thanks to ScienceAlert for support – http://www.sciencealert.com

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

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Why Are Leaves Green? Part 2

Still wondering why leaves are green and not purple or even black? CHLOROPHYLL! It’s how leaves work.

CREDITS
*********
Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Rose Eveleth, Emily Elert, and John Guittar.
Music by Nathaniel Schroeder http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
Thanks to ScienceAlert for support – http://www.sciencealert.com

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
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Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

REFERENCES
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Papers referred to in the making of this video:
Blankenship, Robert E. 2010. Early evolution of photosynthesis. Plant physiology 154(2): 434-438. http://www.plantphysiology.org/content/154/2/434.full.pdf+html

Hohmann-Marriott, M. F., & Blankenship, R. E. 2011. Evolution of photosynthesis. Annual review of plant biology 62: 515-548. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103811

Raven, J. A. 2009. Functional evolution of photochemical energy transformations in oxygen-producing organisms. Functional Plant Biology 36(6): 505-515. http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=FP09087.pdf

Why The Weather Is Worse At The Mall

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Extreme weather sometimes happens in very specific areas thanks to extreme surface temperature differences.

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Evapotranspiration: the return of water to the atmosphere from the ground surface.
Troposphere: The lowest region of the Earth’s atmosphere, extending usually to around 10 km above the Earth’s surface.
Tropopause: The top-most boundary of the troposphere.
Low Pressure System: An area of relatively low pressure that draws air into it, causing converging winds.
Micro-climate: The climate of a very small or restricted area.
Heat Island: An urban area that has higher average temperatures than its surrounding due to the heat absorption of materials like concrete and asphalt.

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CREDITS
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David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

OUR STAFF
************
Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida

OTHER CREDITS
*****************
Articles from Denver Post, Denverite, BBC, itv News,The Independent, Weather Channel, NBC 10 Philadelphia, WFMZ 69, WQAD 8 abc, KSDK 5

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Website | https://minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

REFERENCES
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MIT Concrete Sustainability Hub. Topic Summary: Mitigating Climate Change with Reflective Pavements. (2021). Retrieved from: https://cshub.mit.edu/sites/default/files/images/Albedo%201113_0.pdf

Randel W. J., Jensen E. J., (2013) Physical processes in the tropical tropopause layer and their roles in a changing climate. Nature Geoscience Vol 6, pp 169. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1733

Kurn, D M, Bretz, S E, Huang, B, and Akbari, H. (1994) “The potential for reducing urban air temperatures and energy consumption through vegetative cooling.” United States OSTI, Retrieved from: https://www.osti.gov/biblio/10180633-potential-reducing-urban-air-temperatures-energy-consumption-through-vegetative-cooling

Lejeune, Q., Davin, E.L., Gudmundsson, L. et al. (2018) Historical deforestation locally increased the intensity of hot days in northern mid-latitudes. Nature Clim Change 8, 386–390. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0131-z

Ma J., Chadwick R., Seo K. H., Dong C., Huang G., Foltz G. R., Jiang J. H. (2018) Responses of the Tropical Atmospheric Circulation to Climate Change and Connection to the Hydrological Cycle. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Vol. 46:549–580. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517010102

Terzi, L. (2021). Personal communication. Belgian Nuclear Research Center.

The One That Got Away (Size Matters)

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MinuteEarth provides an energetic and entertaining view of trends in earth’s environment — in just a few minutes!

Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Emily Elert, and Ever Salazar.

Music by Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

REFERENCES
Berkeley et al. 2004. http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/03-0706
Birkeland and Dayton. 2005. http://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution//retrieve/pii/S0169534705000777?cc=y
Garcia et al. 2012. http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00070/18121/15670.pdf
Halliday and Pinhorn. 2009. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783609000423
Halliday and Pinhorn. 2002. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783602000796
Jorgensen et al. 2007. http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2007/publication-3302.pdf
Beldade et al. 2012. http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/people/bernardi/Bernardi/Publications/2012Female_size.pdf
Schmidt. 2003. http://www.oecd.org/japan/2507622.pdf
Shackell and Frank. 2007. http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps2007/336/m336p235.pdf
Zhou et al. 2010. http://www.pnas.org/content/107/21/9485.full.pdf+html

Fishing regulations:
http://myfwc.com/media/2617048/Commercial%20Regulations%20Quick%20Chart.pdf
http://www.southernsfc.org.uk/mls/wheelhousecard.pdf
http://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/dfg/dmf/recreationalfishing/private-angler-rules-poster.pdf
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/fishlimits.pdf

An Egg Is Just One Cell

One of Earth’s biggest cells is one you’re probably really familiar with.

See what we’re cooking up over at our BRAND-NEW channel, MinuteFood: https://www.youtube.com/user/minutefood

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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
– Cell: the smallest unit that can execute all the activities required for life
– Egg: the organic vessel containing the zygote in which an embryo develops until it can survive on its own
– Fertilization: the union of male and female gametes during sexual reproduction to form a zygote

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– Leave us a comment (we read them!)

CREDITS
*********
Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar
Alexander Vidal • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida

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Website | https://minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

REFERENCES
**************
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002). Eggs. Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th edition). New York: Garland Science. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26842/

Gilbert S. (2013). “”Early Development in Birds””. Developmental Biology (10th ed.). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10070/

Marshall WF, Young KD, Swaffer M, Wood E. (2012) What determines cell size? BMC Biololgy 10: 101. https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1741-7007-10-101

Starck J (2020) Morphology of the avian yolk sac, Journal of Morphology 282:7, (959-972). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jmor.21262

Why Do Birds Migrate Like This?

Buy the book: “Where the Animals Go: Tracking Wildlife with Technology in 50 Maps and Graphics” at http://www.wheretheanimalsgo.com

Copyright 2016 by James Cheshire and Oliver Uberti. First American Edition published by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. in 2017. First published in Great Britain in 2016 by Particular Books, an imprint of Penguin Books.

Migrating birds care more about the ease of their trip than the distance they travel, and that leads to some truly roundabout routes.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Migration: The seasonal movement of a population of animals from one area to another.
Prevailing winds: Winds in a particular area that blow in a particular direction.
Thermal: An upward current of warm air.
Lift: A force that counteracts the weight of an object and holds it in the air.
Flyway: A route regularly used by lots of migrating birds.
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___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Arcadi García
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Horton, K., Van Doren, B., Stepanian, P.,Hochachka, W., Farnsworth, A., and Kelly, J. (2016). Nocturnally migrating songbirds drift when they can and compensate when they must. Scientific Reports 6, 1-8. Nature. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/srep21249

Kranstauber,B., Weinzierl, R., Wikelski, M., Safi, K. (2015). Global aerial flyways allow efficient travelling. Ecology Letters. 18: 133. Retrieved from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.12528/full

Liechti, F. (2006). Birds: blowin’ by the wind.Journal of Ornithology. 47: 202–211. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10336-006-0061-9.

Reddy, G., Celani, A., Sejnowski, T., and Vergassola, M. (2016). Learning to soar in turbulent environments. PNAS. 113(33):E4877-84. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27482099

Shamoun-Baranes, J., Leshem, Y., Yom-Tov, Y., and Liech, O. (2003). Differential use of thermal convection by soaring birds over central Israel. The Condor. 105:208-218. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1370541.

Leshem, Yossi. (2017) Professor of Life Science, Tel-Aviv University. Personal Communication.

You Have More Bones Than You Think

Go to https://www.curiositystream.com/minute to get a free month trial with CuriosityStream and get a subscription to Nebula bundled in for free!

Because the ossification process can differ so much from human to human, we have a wide range of potential bone numbers.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.
___________________________________________
To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Cartilage: The flexible connective tissue that is turned to bone by osteoblasts.
Osteoblasts: Cells that control calcium and mineral deposition to turn cartilage into bone.
Sesamoids: Bones embedded in tendons or muscles.
Fabella: A large sesamoid bone occasionally found behind the knee joint.
Coccyx: The small set of semi-fused triangular bones at the end of the vertebral column.
___________________________________________
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And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer, Editor and Video Director and Narrator: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia (@garirius)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Goldberg I, Nathan H. (1987). Anatomy and pathology of the sesamoid bones. The hand compared to the foot. International Orthopaedics. 11(2):141-7. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3610408.

Vineet K. Sarin Gregory M. Erickson Nicholas J. Giori A. Gabrielle Bergman Dennis R. Carter (2003). Coincident development of sesamoid bones and clues to their evolution. The Anatomical Record.5: 174-180. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/%28SICI%291097-0185%2819991015%29257%3A5%3C174%3A%3AAID-AR6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-O.

Tao Sun, Lingxiang Wang, Haitao Zhao,Wenjuan Wu,and Wenhai Hu (2016). Prevalence, morphological variation and ossification of sesamoid bones of the forefoot: a retrospective radiographic study of 8,716 Chinese subjects. 2(3): 91–96. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6410651/.

Postacchini F, Massobrio M. (1983). Idiopathic coccygodynia: Analysis of fifty-one operative cases and a radiographic study of the normal coccyx. The Journal of bone and joint surgery. 65(8): 1116-1124. Retrieved from: https://www.coccyx.org/medabs/posta.htm.

Meals, Roy. (2019). Personal Communication. http://www.AboutBone.com

Our Atmosphere is Escaping!

Our planet is surrounded by a wispy-thin layer of gas that keeps us warm and allows weather to happen and basically makes all of life on Earth possible. Except… that precious atmosphere of ours is actually leaking, every second, into outer space

CREDITS
*********
Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Rose Eveleth, Emily Elert, and John Guittar.
Music by Nathaniel Schroeder: https://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH
**************************
If you like what we do, you can help us!:
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– Share this video with your friends and family
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REFERENCES
**************
Atmospheric escape on Earth: https://faculty.washington.edu/dcatling/Catling2009_SciAm.pdf

Null Island: The Busiest Place That Doesn’t Exist (ft @TomScottGo )

Thanks to @TomScottGo for helping write and narrate this video. Check out his amazing channel:
https://www.youtube.com/TomScottGo

CREDITS
*********
Script Writer & Narrator: Tom Scott
Script Editor: Henry Reich
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar
Video Director: Emily Elert
With Contributions From: Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Peter Reich, Rachel Becker, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

IMAGE CREDITS
*****************
Photo of Null Island Buoy by: Jacques Grelet, IRD.fr

SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH
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Thanks also to our supporters on Patreon:
– Today I Found Out
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REFERENCES
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http://www.jsonline.com/news/statepolitics/clerks-scrambling-to-get-voters-in-right-districts-3v3ov36-137102098.html

How To Avoid The Next Atlantis

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Credits (and Twitter handles):
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References:

Delta Works. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved October 8, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Works.

Flood control in the Netherlands. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved October 8, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_control_in_the_Netherlands.

IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp. http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/

Koch, E.W., Barbier, E.B., Silliman, B.R., Reed, D.J. et al. (2009). Non-linearity in ecosystem services: temporal and spatial variability in coastal protection. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7(1):29–37. http://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=iss_pub

Möller, I.; Kudella, M.; Rupprecht, F.; Spencer, T.; Paul, M.; van Wesenbeeck, B.K (2014). Wave attenuation over coastal salt marshes under storm surge conditions. Nature Geoscience 7: 727–731. http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v7/n10/full/ngeo2251.html

Moss, S. (2011, January 19). Weatherwatch: The Grote Mandrenke. The Guardian. http://www.theguardian.com/news/2011/jan/20/weatherwatch-grote-mandrenke

The Nature Conservancy (2015). Urban Coastal Resilience: Valuing Nature’s Role. https://tnc.app.box.com/s/9awez618538tf24rnu5mv73fkfa668mr/1/4092107687/34026668411/1

The World Bank Group (2011). Guide to Climate Change Adaptation in Cities. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/Resources/336387-1318995974398/GuideClimChangeAdaptCities.pdf

Image Credits:

Oahu Hawaii – Cristo Vlahos
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Waikiki_view_from_Diamond_Head.JPG

Port of Cape Town – Wikimedia user SkyPixels
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Port_of_Cape_Town.jpg

Hong Kong – Wikimedia user WiNG
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hong_Kong_Island_Skyline_2009.jpg

Perth Australia – Public Domain
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Perth_Skyline.jpg

Maeslantkering closed – World66.com
http://www.world66.com/europe/netherlands/lib/gallery/showimage?pic=europe/netherlands/new_waterway_storm

Hartelkering gesloten – Wikimedia user Quistnix
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spijkenisse_-_Hartelkering_gesloten.jpg

Oosterscheldekering-pohled – Vladimír Šiman
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oosterscheldekering-pohled.jpg

Haringvlietdam 2006 – Wikimedia user Quistnix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Haringvlietdam_2006_06_18-2.jpg

Jakarta’s flooded streets – VOA Indonesian Service (Public Domain)
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VOA_People_walk_through_Jakarta%27s_flooded_streets.jpg

Hurricane Patricia – NOAA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hurricane_Patricia_October_23,_2015,_GOES-15_visible_animation.gif

Permeable “Thirsty” concrete – Tarmac Ltd

Floating Utility Unit – DeltaSync/Blue21

B21 – Homepage

Rijnhavenpark – DeltaSync/Blue21

B21 – Homepage

Tracks and Storms – Robert Allison
http://robslink.com/

NYC Hurricane Evacuation Map – City of New York
http://maps.nyc.gov/hurricane/

The Difference between Pollen and Sperm

Pollen is often described as ‘plant sperm’, but it has some important differences! Like sperm, pollen contains one DNA set from its parent, but unlike sperm, pollen itself is actually its own separate living plant made of multiple cells that, under the right conditions, can live for months, depending on the species.

Why You’re More Likely To Die In Winter

There’s a huge seasonal difference in death rates that is propelled by a variety of factors including pathogen behavior and anatomical response to temperature changes.

LEARN MORE
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Crude Death Rate: The number of people in a population of a 1,000 who die every year. The 2020 rate for the entire world is roughly 8.

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
CGP Grey takes you through the first half of Death’s day: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QMNGEY8OZqo

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CREDITS
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This video was produced by:
David Goldenberg | Script Writer
Julián Gustavo Gómez | Narrator
Irene Crisologo | Illustrator
Ever Salazar | Animator and Director
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music

Feedback on drafts by:
Julián Gustavo Gómez, Alex Reich, Henry Reich, Peter Reich, Ever Salazar and Kate Yoshida

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius
David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich
Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida

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REFERENCES
**************
Robbie M Parks, James E Bennett, Kyle J Foreman, Ralf Toumi, Majid Ezzati (2018). National and regional seasonal dynamics of all-cause and cause-specific mortality in the USA from 1980 to 2016. eLife 2018;7:e35500. Retrieved from: https://elifesciences.org/articles/35500.

Roland Rau, Christina Bohk-Ewald, Magdalena M. Muszyńska, James W. Vaupel (2017). Seasonality of Causes of Death. Chapter in: Visualizing Mortality Dynamics in the Lexis Diagram. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-64820-0_9.

Dimitrios Seretakis; Pagona Lagiou, MD; Loren Lipworth, DSc; et al (1997). Changing Seasonality of Mortality From Coronary Heart Disease. JAMA, 278(12):1012-1014. Retrieved from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/418241.

W. R. Keatinge (2002) Winter mortality and its causes, International Journal of
Circumpolar Health, 61:4, 292-299. Retrieved from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3402/ijch.v61i4.17477

Average Daily Number of Deaths,* by Month — United States, 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/68/wr/mm6826a5.htm.

Plate Tectonics Explained

How do plate tectonics REALLY work?

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References

Anderson, D. L. (2001). Top-down tectonics?. Science, 293(5537), 2016-2018. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/293/5537/2016.short

Conrad, C. P., & Lithgow-Bertelloni, C. (2002). How mantle slabs drive plate tectonics. Science, 298(5591), 207-209. ftp://128.171.151.230/engels/Stanley/Textbook_update/Science_298/Conrad-02.pdf

Conrad, C.P., 2014. Personal Communication

Dietz, R. S. (1961). Continent and ocean basin evolution by spreading of the sea floor. Nature, 190(4779), 854-857. http://eps.mcgill.ca/~courses/c350/lecturestuff/jan28/Dietz_1961.pdf

Forsyth, D., & Uyeda, S. (1975). On the relative importance of the driving forces of plate motion. Geophysical Journal International, 43(1), 163-200. http://gji.oxfordjournals.org/content/43/1/163.short

Hecht, J. 2014, Aug 29. Earth’s tectonic plates have doubled their speed. New Scientist. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22329843.000-earths-tectonic-plates-have-doubled-their-speed.html#.VBDAJ7ywJ_Q

Smil, V. 2007. Energy in Nature and Society: General Energetics of Complex Systems. MIT Press. http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/energy-nature-and-society

Driving forces of plate tectonics (website):
http://www.columbia.edu/~vjd1/driving_forces_basic.htm

Which is Worse?

A broken bone might seem worse than a sprain, but you’ll get over it much more quickly.

LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Aqueous humour: The clear fluid filling the space in the front of the eyeball between the lens and the cornea.
Bone remodeling: The continuous process of synthesis and destruction that gives bone its mature structure and maintains normal calcium levels in the body.
Ligament: A short band of tough, flexible fibrous connective tissue which connects two bones or cartilages or holds together a joint.
Sprain: A stretching or tearing of ligaments.

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Kate Yoshida | Script Editor, Narrator and Director
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Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music

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REFERENCES
**************
Landzhov, B. (2015). The Epiligament-The Main Donor of Cells and Vessels during Healing Of the Collateral Ligaments of the Knee. Anatomy & Physiology, s4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0940.s4-006

Leong, N. L., Kator, J. L., Clemens, T. L., James, A., Enamoto‐Iwamoto, M., & Jiang, J. (2019). Tendon and Ligament Healing and Current Approaches to Tendon and Ligament Regeneration. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 38(1), 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.24475

Marsell, R., & Einhorn, T. A. (2011). The biology of fracture healing. Injury, 42(6), 551–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2011.03.031

Martini, F., Nath, J. L., & Bartholomew, E. F. (2018). Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology (11th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.

Smith, P., & Bollier, M. (2014). Anterior Cruciate Ligament and Medial Collateral Ligament Injuries. Journal of Knee Surgery, 27(05), 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1381961

How This River Made Chimps Violent

When a group of apes got split apart, slight differences in their new environments led to big differences in future generations.

LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
– Chimpanzee: A great ape native to tropical Africa that is one of humanity’s closest living relatives.
– Bonobo: A slightly smaller great ape native to tropical Africa that is one of humanity’s closest living relatives.
– Speciation: A lineage-splitting event in which a population of the same species becomes two different species.
– Allopatric speciation: Speciation that occurs when populations of the same species get isolated geographically.
– Hominini: The taxonomical classification that includes humans, chimps, and bonobos.
– Pan: The taxonomical classification that includes chimps and bonobos.
– Chimpobo: A name we just made up to identify the common ancestor of the chimpanzee and bonobo.
– Congo river: The deepest river in the world and the second largest (behind the Amazon) in discharge volume.
– G-G Rubbing: A form of genital to genital contact bonobos sometimes use to form social bonds.

CREDITS
*********
Writer, Director, and Narrator: David Goldenberg
Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Arcadi Garcia Rius
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder
VHS Rewind effect based on footage by http://www.anfx.co

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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REFERENCES
**************
Caswell, J., Mallick, S., Richter, D., Neubauer, J., Schirmer, C., Gnerre, S., Reich, D. (2008). Analysis of Chimpanzee History Based on Genome Sequence Alignments. PLoS Genetics. 4(4): e1000057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1000057

Takemoto H, Kawamoto Y, Furuichi T. (2015). How Did Bonobos Come to Range South of the Congo River? Reconsideration of the Divergence of Pan paniscus from Other Pan Populations. Evolutionary Anthropology. 24:170–184. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26478139

Prufer, K. et al (2012). The Bonobo Genome Compared with the Chimpanzee and Human Genomes. Nature. 486: 527–531. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11128

Hey, J. (2010). The Divergence of Chimpanzee Species and Subspecies as Revealed in Multipopulation Isolation-with-Migration Analyses. Molecular Biology and Evolution. 27(4): 921-933. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2877540/

Takemoto H, Kawamoto Y, Furuichi T. (2015). How Did Bonobos Come to Range South of the Congo River? Reconsideration of the Divergence of Pan paniscus from Other Pan Populations. Evolutionary Anthropology. 24:170–184. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26478139.

Stanford, C. (2019). Personal Communication. Professor of Anthropology and Biological Sciences, University of Southern California.

What is Freezer Burn?

Why do ice cubes shrink, ice cream get frosty, and vegetables dry out in the freezer? FREEZER BURN!

CREDITS
*********
Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Rose Eveleth, Emily Elert, and John Guittar.
Music by Nathaniel Schroeder: https://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
Thanks to ScienceAlert for support – https://www.sciencealert.com

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

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REFERENCES
**************
Frost flowers: https://www.itg.cam.ac.uk/people/grae/90.pdf

How Tall Can Mountains Be?

What is the maximum height for a mountain on Earth!? And why?

CREDITS
*********
Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Rose Eveleth, Emily Elert, and John Guittar.
Music by Nathaniel Schroeder http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
Thanks to ScienceAlert for support – http://www.sciencealert.com
Special thanks to Ryan Loomis and TED-Ed for contributions.

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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REFERENCES
**************
Scheuer, P. A. G. 1981. How High Can A Mountain Be? J. Astrophys. Astr. 2: 165–169. http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jaa/2/165-169.pdf

Why Is There So Much Land In The North?

Most of Earth’s land is currently in the northern hemisphere because we happen to exist in a time where uneven heating in the mantle has pushed many continental plates northward.

LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
– Continental drift: An early theory of land movement that posited that the continents floated on the ocean bed.
– Tetrahedral hypothesis: An early theory that attempted to explain the arrangement of Earth’s continents and oceans based on the geometry of a tetrahedron.
– Plate tectonics: The generally accepted theory that the Earth’s surface is made up of a series of tectonic plates that slowly move around on top of the mantle.
– Pangea: The most recent supercontinent to form on Earth, during the late Paleozoic era.
– Great Rift Valley: A series of contiguous geographic trenches between two tectonic plates where humans first evolved.
– Aurica: A potential future supercontinent predicted to form in about 200 million years.

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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REFERENCES
**************
Yoshida, M., Hamano, Y. (2015). Pangea breakup and northward drift of the Indian subcontinent reproduced by a numerical model of mantle convection. Scientific Reports 5, 8407. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep08407

Morton, M.C. (2017). When and how did plate tectonics begin on Earth? Earth Magazine. Retrieved from: https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/when-and-how-did-plate-tectonics-begin-earth/

Fisher, R. (2022). How the next supercontinent will form. BBC Future. Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220401-how-the-next-supercontinent-will-form

Maslin, M. (2013). How Climate Change and Plate Tectonics Shaped Human Evolution. Retrieved from: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-climate-change-and-plate-tectonics-shaped-human-evolution/

Green, W.L. (1875). Vestiges of the Molten Globe. Retrieved from: https://archive.org/details/vestigesmolteng00greegoog

What Happens When A Volcano Meets a Glacier?

Volcanoes might seem like an unstoppable force of nature – but there is at least one OTHER force on Earth that seems to be able to keep them down.

LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
– Decompression Melting: Mantle melting that involves the upward movement of Earth’s mostly-solid mantle.
– Flux Melting: Melting that occurs when water and other volatile components are introduced to hot solid rock.
– Glaciation: the process, condition, or result of being covered by glaciers or ice sheets.
– Magma: Hot fluid or semifluid material below or within the earth’s crust from which lava and other igneous rock is formed on cooling.

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CREDITS
*********
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Sarah Berman and Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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REFERENCES
**************
Aubry, Thomas J., et al. “Impact of Climate Change on Volcanic Processes: Current Understanding and Future Challenges.” Bulletin of Volcanology, vol. 84, no. 6, 18 May 2022, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-022-01562-8

Cooper, Claire L., et al. “Evaluating the Relationship between Climate Change and Volcanism.” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 177, 1 Feb. 2018, pp. 238–247, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.11.009

Huybers, Peter, and Charles Langmuir. “Feedback between Deglaciation, Volcanism, and Atmospheric CO2.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 286, no. 3-4, Sept. 2009, pp. 479–491, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.014

Huybers, Peter, and Charles H. Langmuir. “Delayed CO2 Emissions from Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanism as a Possible Cause of Late-Pleistocene Glacial Cycles.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 457, Jan. 2017, pp. 238–249, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.09.021

Jull, M., and D. McKenzie. “The Effect of Deglaciation on Mantle Melting beneath Iceland.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, vol. 101, no. B10, 10 Oct. 1996, pp. 21815–21828, https://doi.org/10.1029/96jb01308

Maclennan, J., et al. “The Link between Volcanism and Deglaciation in Iceland.” Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, vol. 3, no. 11, Nov. 2002, pp. 1–25, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001gc000282

Praetorius, Summer, et al. “Interaction between Climate, Volcanism, and Isostatic Rebound in Southeast Alaska during the Last Deglaciation.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 452, 15 Oct. 2016, pp. 79–89, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.07.033

Rawson, Harriet, et al. “The Magmatic and Eruptive Response of Arc Volcanoes to Deglaciation: Insights from Southern Chile.” Geology, vol. 44, no. 4, 24 Feb. 2016, pp. 251–254, https://doi.org/10.1130/g37504.1

Swindles, Graeme T., et al. “Climatic Control on Icelandic Volcanic Activity during the Mid-Holocene.” Geology, vol. 46, no. 1, 1 Jan. 2018, pp. 47–50, https://doi.org/10.1130/G39633.1

Watt, Sebastian F.L., et al. “The Volcanic Response to Deglaciation: Evidence from Glaciated Arcs and a Reassessment of Global Eruption Records.” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 122, July 2013, pp. 77–102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.03.007

The Plant That’s Full Of Metal

The amount of metal some special plants are able to take up from the soil would be toxic enough to an average plant to kill it several times over.

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
– Hyperaccumulator: a plant capable of growing in metalliferous soils and to accumulate extraordinarily high amounts of heavy metals, far in excess of the levels found in the majority of species, without suffering toxic effects
– Phytoremediation: the treatment of pollutants or waste (as in contaminated soil or groundwater) by the use of green plants that remove, degrade, or stabilize the undesirable substances (such as toxic metals)
– Phytomining: the planting (and subsequent harvesting) of vegetation that will selectively concentrate specific metals from the soil into their tissues
– Euhalophytes: highly salt-tolerant plants capable of diluting salt within their succulent leaves or stems
– Active transport: the process of transferring substances against a concentration gradient into, out of, and between cells, using energy

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
Read about a farm that is harvesting nickel-hoarding plants profitably: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/26/science/metal-plants-farm.html

Thank you to Dr. Hendrik Küpper for his expert consultation on the script! Learn more about his research into “metal-hoarding” plants here: https://plantmetals.eu/

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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
– Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth
– Share this video with your friends and family
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CREDITS
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Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

OUR STAFF
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Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius
David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich
Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida

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Website | https://minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

REFERENCES
**************
Andresen, Elisa, Edgar Peiter, and Hendrik Küpper. “Trace metal metabolism in plants.” Journal of Experimental Botany 69.5 (2018): 909-954. https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/69/5/909/4855954

Bouman, Roderick, et al. “Phyllanthus rufuschaneyi: a new nickel hyperaccumulator from Sabah (Borneo Island) with potential for tropical agromining.” Botanical studies 59.1 (2018): 9. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40529-018-0225-y

Brooks, Robert R., et al. “Phytomining.” Trends in plant science 3.9 (1998): 359-362. https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/comments/S1360-1385(98)01283-7

Chrispeels, Maarten J., Nigel M. Crawford, and Julian I. Schroeder. “Proteins for transport of water and mineral nutrients across the membranes of plant cells.” The Plant Cell 11.4 (1999): 661-675. http://www.plantcell.org/content/11/4/661

Favas, Paulo JC, et al. “Phytoremediation of soils contaminated with metals and metalloids at mining areas: potential of native flora.” Environmental risk assessment of soil contamination 3 (2014): 485-516. https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/46355.pdf

Morgan, J. B. & Connolly, E. L. (2013) Plant-Soil Interactions: Nutrient Uptake. Nature Education Knowledge 4(8):2 https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/plant-soil-interactions-nutrient-uptake-105289112/

Morrissey, Joe, and Mary Lou Guerinot. “Trace elements: too little or too much and how plants cope.” F1000 biology reports 1 (2009). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2920677/

Rascio, Nicoletta, and Flavia Navari-Izzo. “Heavy metal hyperaccumulating plants: how and why do they do it? And what makes them so interesting?.” Plant science 180.2 (2011): 169-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2010.08.016

Song, Jie, and Baoshan Wang. “Using euhalophytes to understand salt tolerance and to develop saline agriculture: Suaeda salsa as a promising model.” Annals of Botany 115.3 (2015): 541-553. http://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC4332605&blobtype=pdf

Yuan, Fang, et al. “Beneficial Effects of Salt on Halophyte Growth: Morphology, Cells, and Genes.” Open Life Sciences 14.1 (2019): 191-200. https://www.degruyter.com/view/journals/biol/14/1/article-p191.xml

Should We Let Pandas Go Extinct?

When it comes to saving species, how should we decide who to save first?

LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
– Keystone species: a species that plays a crucial role in the functioning of an ecosystem
– Flagship species: species used as an icon for an environmental cause
– Threatened species: species assessed by the IUCN as critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable
– Triage: assigning degrees of urgency to a large number of patients to determine the order of treatment

CREDITS
*********
Script Writer: Kate Yoshida
Script Editor: Emily Elert
Narrator: Henry Reich
Illustrator and Animator: Ever Salazar
Music: Nathaniel Schroeder

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

IMAGE CREDITS
*****************
Stinking Cedar (Torreya taxifolia) – Jerry A. Payne – http://bit.ly/1EyduHa

Pygmy hog-sucking Louse (Haematopinus oliveri) – Zoological Survey of India – http://bit.ly/1JdxxvD

Sturgeon – Wikimedia user Cacophony – http://bit.ly/1DOjpFA

Saiga Anthelope – Wikimedia user Seilov – http://bit.ly/1E0O0Pq

Echinocactus grusonii – André Karwath – http://bit.ly/1IucNBw

Cork Oak (Quercus suber) – Wikimedia user Joergsam – http://bit.ly/1ziQOLU

Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) – Patryk Krzyzak – http://bit.ly/1GLUf0g

Paddlefish – U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Headquarters – http://bit.ly/1GLUdFX

Swietenia macrophylla – Flickr User jayeshpatil912 – http://bit.ly/1HWzhuB

Arakan forest turtle – Public Domain – http://bit.ly/1dzlAqh

Purple Frog – Wikimedia User Karthickbala – http://bit.ly/1JF1Hv8

Cute Panda – Wikimedia User Sheilalau (Public Domain) – http://bit.ly/1c0JURt

Frohawk Dodo – Frederick William Frohawk (Public Domain) – http://bit.ly/1bInEer

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Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

REFERENCES
**************
IUCN 2014. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. http://www.iucnredlist.org/

Joseph, L. N., Maloney R. F., & Possingham, H. P. (2009) Optimal allocation of resources among threatened species: a project prioritization protocol. Conservation Biology 23:328-338. http://www.uq.edu.au/spatialecology/docs/Publications/2009_Joseph_etal_OptimalAllocation.pdf

Small, E. (2011) The new Noah’s Ark: beautiful and useful species only. Part 1. Biodiversity conservation issues and priorities. Biodiversity 12(4): 232 – 247. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14888386.2011.642663#

Smith, R.J., Verissimo, D.; Isaac, N.J.B., & Jones, K.E. (2012) Identifying Cinderella species: uncovering mammals with conservation flagship appeal. Conservation Letters, 5 (3): 205 – 212. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00229.x/abstract

Sitas, N., Baillie, J.E.M., and Isaac, N.J.B. (2009) What are we saving? Developing a standardized approach for conservation action. Animal Conservation, 12(3): 231- 237. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00244.x/full

US Fish and Wildlife Service. (1999) South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan. Mangroves: 3-519 – 3-552. http://www.fws.gov/verobeach/msrppdfs/mangroves.pdf

Warren, L. (June 2006) Panda, Inc. National Geographic Magazine. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2006/07/panda/warren-text

World Wildlife Fund. (2014) Annual Report. http://assets.worldwildlife.org/financial_reports/21/reports/original/2014_Annual_Report.pdf?1418325091&_ga=1.146888247.1239564205.1427657892

How to Survive a Lightning Strike

If you get caught in the middle of a big, open field during a lightning storm, which of the following uniforms would be most likely to keep you safe? A thick wetsuit; a superman costume; a medieval coat of armor; or a birthday suit?

CREDITS
*********
Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Emily Elert, and Ever Salazar.
Music by Nathaniel Schroeder

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH
**************************
If you like what we do, you can help us!:
– Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth
– Our merch: http://dftba.com/minuteearth
– Our book: https://minuteearth.com/books
– Share this video with your friends and family
– Leave us a comment (we read them!)

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REFERENCES
**************
Faraday suits/linemen: https://science.howstuffworks.com/faraday-cage3.htm

Human body tissues resistivity: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10593226

conductivity of lightning channel: https://iopscience.iop.org/1402-4896/80/3/035901

US soil resistivity: https://www.rurdev.usda.gov/SupportDocuments/UTP_Bulletins_1751F-802.pdf