earth science - Jean Sainvil - In God We Trust - Blessed is the man who comes in the name of God.

What Nuclear Bombs Taught Us About Whales

A monitoring system developed to listen for secret nuclear tests mostly hears other events happening all around Earth.

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If you want to learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Infrasound: sound waves too low in frequency for humans to hear. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 0.02 to 4Hz
Hydroacoustic: having to do with underwater sounds. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 1-100 Hz
Seismic: oscillation waves in the earth, often caused by earthquakes or other tectonic activity. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 0.02-16 Hz
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Alex Reich
Script Editor: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Illustrator: Jesse Agar
Video Director: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
Video Narrator: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Ever Salazar, Emily Elert, Peter Reich, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

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If you liked this week’s video, we think you might also like:
Animals can detect infrasound: http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2004/12/surviving_the_tsunami.html

A Time-Lapse Map of Every Nuclear Explosion Since 1945: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLCF7vPanrY

Sound travels 1000s of miles in the ocean’s SOFAR channel: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOFAR_channel

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Sounds in the video that were recorded by CTBTO stations:

0:32 Kasatoshi volcano eruption in August 2008, detected 2100km away at infrasound station on mainland Alaska. Sped up 500x https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasatochi_Island

0:35 Explosion of Antares rocket in October 2014, detected 1100km away at Bermuda infrasound station. Sped up 150x https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_CRS_Orb-3 and video: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antares_Fails_to_Reach_Orbit_with_Cygnus_CRS-3_after_Rocket_Explodes.webm

0:37 Ship engine detected June 1 2017 by hydroacoustic station. Sped up 16x

0:40 Waves hitting an iceberg and causing it to vibrate like a cymbal in July 2010. Detected by hydroacoustic station off of Western Australia. Sped up 16x

1:01 Whale call Feb 18 2017, detected by hydroacoustic station. Sped up 16x

1:08 Chelyabinsk meteor airburst February 15 2013, detected by infrasound station 650km away in Kazakhstan. Sped up 135x

1:39 Earthquake Jan 2 2017, detected by infrasound station. Sped up 16x

2:00 Sound with unknown cause, detected by hydroacoustic station. March 25 2017. Sped up 16x

References

Brown, P. G., et al. 2013. A 500-kiloton airburst over Chelyabinsk and an enhanced hazard from small impactors. Nature, 503(7475), 238-241. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12741

Gavrilov, A. May 2017, Personal communication

Graham, G. May 2017, Personal communication

Harabalus, G. May 2017, personal communication

LeBras, R. May 2017, personal communication

Mialle P., May 2017, personal communication

Miksis-Old, J. May 2017, personal communication

Nielsen, P., May 2017, personal communication

Le Pichon, A., et al. 2013. The 2013 Russian fireball largest ever detected by CTBTO infrasound sensors. Geophysical Research Letters, 40(14), 3732-3737. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/grl.50619/full

Iceland Is Being Pulled in Two Directions – Literally

Iceland is literally being torn in half, and nobody tells you about it. While tourists admire its stunning landscapes, the ground beneath is actively splitting apart. Two tectonic plates are pulling away from each other at about 2 centimeters per year, and the consequences are devastating. In 2023, the town of Grindavik was evacuated overnight as the ground cracked open beneath people’s homes. Thousands became geological refugees.
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This video is made for entertainment purposes. We do not make any warranties about the completeness, safety and reliability. Any action you take upon the information in this video is strictly at your own risk, and we will not be liable for any damages or losses. It is the viewer’s responsibility to use judgement, care and precaution if you plan to replicate.

The Weird Sex Lives of Bluegills

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When it comes to the mating game, fish have some of the strangest ways of thwarting the competition.

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
– Alternative mating strategy: a strategy used by male or female animals, often with distinct phenotypes, that differs from the prevailing mating strategy.
– Dependent selection: an evolutionary process by which the fitness of a phenotype or genotype depends on the phenotype or genotype composition of a given population.

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REFERENCES
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Dominey, Wallace J. “Female Mimicry in Male Bluegill Sunfish—a Genetic Polymorphism?” Nature, vol. 284, no. 5756, Apr. 1980, pp. 546–548, https://doi.org/10.1038/284546a0

“Evolution of Alternative Reproductive Strategies: Frequency-Dependent Sexual Selection in Male Bluegill Sunfish | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 2022, royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1991.0033

Gross, Mart R. “Alternative Reproductive Strategies and Tactics: Diversity within Sexes.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol. 11, no. 2, Feb. 1996, pp. 92–98, https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(96)81050-0

Gross, Mart R. “Sneakers, Satellites and Parentals: Polymorphic Mating Strategies in North American Sunfishes.” Zeitschrift Für Tierpsychologie, vol. 60, no. 1, 12 Jan. 1982, pp. 1–26, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1982.tb01073.x

Jukema, Joop, and Theunis Piersma. “Permanent Female Mimics in a Lekking Shorebird.” Biology Letters, vol. 2, no. 2, 10 Jan. 2006, pp. 161–164, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0416

Neff, B. D. “Genetic Paternity Analysis and Breeding Success in Bluegill Sunfish (Lepomis Macrochirus).” Journal of Heredity, vol. 92, no. 2, 1 Mar. 2001, pp. 111–119, https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/92.2.111

Neff, B. D. “Sperm Investment and Alternative Mating Tactics in Bluegill Sunfish (Lepomis Macrochirus).” Behavioral Ecology, vol. 14, no. 5, 1 Sept. 2003, pp. 634–641, https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arg032

Neff, Bryan D., and Erik I. Svensson. “Polyandry and Alternative Mating Tactics.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 368, no. 1613, 5 Mar. 2013, p. 20120045, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0045

Neff, Bryan. Personal Communication

MinuteEarth: The Story of Our Planet

Our first video ever! Agriculture, hula hoops, SARS, and THIS video: how long did they take to get around the earth?

CREDITS
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Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Rose Eveleth, Emily Elert, and John Guittar.
Music by Nathaniel Schroeder http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
Thanks to ScienceAlert for support – http://www.sciencealert.com

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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The Coyote Paradox

Hunting coyotes can lead to MORE coyotes. If we want to control the coyote population, we will need to look at other approaches.

Why Are Leaves Green? Part 2

Still wondering why leaves are green and not purple or even black? CHLOROPHYLL! It’s how leaves work.

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

REFERENCES
**************
Papers referred to in the making of this video:
Blankenship, Robert E. 2010. Early evolution of photosynthesis. Plant physiology 154(2): 434-438. http://www.plantphysiology.org/content/154/2/434.full.pdf+html

Hohmann-Marriott, M. F., & Blankenship, R. E. 2011. Evolution of photosynthesis. Annual review of plant biology 62: 515-548. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103811

Raven, J. A. 2009. Functional evolution of photochemical energy transformations in oxygen-producing organisms. Functional Plant Biology 36(6): 505-515. http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=FP09087.pdf

Why The Weather Is Worse At The Mall

Offset your carbon footprint with Wren! They’ll plant 10 extra trees for each of the first 100 people who sign up at https://www.wren.co/start/minuteearth.
Extreme weather sometimes happens in very specific areas thanks to extreme surface temperature differences.

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Evapotranspiration: the return of water to the atmosphere from the ground surface.
Troposphere: The lowest region of the Earth’s atmosphere, extending usually to around 10 km above the Earth’s surface.
Tropopause: The top-most boundary of the troposphere.
Low Pressure System: An area of relatively low pressure that draws air into it, causing converging winds.
Micro-climate: The climate of a very small or restricted area.
Heat Island: An urban area that has higher average temperatures than its surrounding due to the heat absorption of materials like concrete and asphalt.

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– Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth
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CREDITS
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David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

OUR STAFF
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Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida

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Articles from Denver Post, Denverite, BBC, itv News,The Independent, Weather Channel, NBC 10 Philadelphia, WFMZ 69, WQAD 8 abc, KSDK 5

Website | https://minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

REFERENCES
**************
MIT Concrete Sustainability Hub. Topic Summary: Mitigating Climate Change with Reflective Pavements. (2021). Retrieved from: https://cshub.mit.edu/sites/default/files/images/Albedo%201113_0.pdf

Randel W. J., Jensen E. J., (2013) Physical processes in the tropical tropopause layer and their roles in a changing climate. Nature Geoscience Vol 6, pp 169. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1733

Kurn, D M, Bretz, S E, Huang, B, and Akbari, H. (1994) “The potential for reducing urban air temperatures and energy consumption through vegetative cooling.” United States OSTI, Retrieved from: https://www.osti.gov/biblio/10180633-potential-reducing-urban-air-temperatures-energy-consumption-through-vegetative-cooling

Lejeune, Q., Davin, E.L., Gudmundsson, L. et al. (2018) Historical deforestation locally increased the intensity of hot days in northern mid-latitudes. Nature Clim Change 8, 386–390. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0131-z

Ma J., Chadwick R., Seo K. H., Dong C., Huang G., Foltz G. R., Jiang J. H. (2018) Responses of the Tropical Atmospheric Circulation to Climate Change and Connection to the Hydrological Cycle. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Vol. 46:549–580. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517010102

Terzi, L. (2021). Personal communication. Belgian Nuclear Research Center.

The One That Got Away (Size Matters)

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MinuteEarth provides an energetic and entertaining view of trends in earth’s environment — in just a few minutes!

Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Emily Elert, and Ever Salazar.

Music by Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

REFERENCES
Berkeley et al. 2004. http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/03-0706
Birkeland and Dayton. 2005. http://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution//retrieve/pii/S0169534705000777?cc=y
Garcia et al. 2012. http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00070/18121/15670.pdf
Halliday and Pinhorn. 2009. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783609000423
Halliday and Pinhorn. 2002. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783602000796
Jorgensen et al. 2007. http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2007/publication-3302.pdf
Beldade et al. 2012. http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/people/bernardi/Bernardi/Publications/2012Female_size.pdf
Schmidt. 2003. http://www.oecd.org/japan/2507622.pdf
Shackell and Frank. 2007. http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps2007/336/m336p235.pdf
Zhou et al. 2010. http://www.pnas.org/content/107/21/9485.full.pdf+html

Fishing regulations:
http://myfwc.com/media/2617048/Commercial%20Regulations%20Quick%20Chart.pdf
http://www.southernsfc.org.uk/mls/wheelhousecard.pdf
http://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/dfg/dmf/recreationalfishing/private-angler-rules-poster.pdf
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/fishlimits.pdf

An Egg Is Just One Cell

One of Earth’s biggest cells is one you’re probably really familiar with.

See what we’re cooking up over at our BRAND-NEW channel, MinuteFood: https://www.youtube.com/user/minutefood

LEARN MORE
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
– Cell: the smallest unit that can execute all the activities required for life
– Egg: the organic vessel containing the zygote in which an embryo develops until it can survive on its own
– Fertilization: the union of male and female gametes during sexual reproduction to form a zygote

CREDITS
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Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

OUR STAFF
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Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar
Alexander Vidal • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida

Website | https://minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

REFERENCES
**************
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002). Eggs. Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th edition). New York: Garland Science. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26842/

Gilbert S. (2013). “”Early Development in Birds””. Developmental Biology (10th ed.). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10070/

Marshall WF, Young KD, Swaffer M, Wood E. (2012) What determines cell size? BMC Biololgy 10: 101. https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1741-7007-10-101

Starck J (2020) Morphology of the avian yolk sac, Journal of Morphology 282:7, (959-972). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jmor.21262

Scientists Finally Found What Froze Antarctica

Scientists have finally uncovered the chain of events that transformed Antarctica from a green, forested continent into the frozen wilderness we know today. Millions of years ago, Antarctica supported rivers, forests, and even dinosaurs, but everything changed when shifting tectonic plates isolated the continent and opened a gateway for a powerful ocean current to form around it. That current, known as the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, effectively cut Antarctica off from warmer waters and triggered a dramatic global cooling event. As temperatures plunged, massive ice sheets began to expand, eventually covering nearly the entire continent and locking away enough frozen water to reshape sea levels around the world. Join us as we explore the discovery of what froze Antarctica, how a single geological change transformed an entire continent, and why the effects are still shaping Earth’s climate today.
Credit:
vladgrinch https://www.reddit.com/r/MapPorn/comments/1htey8s/what_antarctica_looks_like_without_ice/ / Reddit
Animation is created by Bright Side.

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Music from TheSoul Sound: https://thesoul-sound.com/

Britain’s Lost Tsunami Disaster Finally Revealed

Britain suffered one of the most devastating natural disasters in its history, yet most people have never heard of it. Thousands of years ago, a colossal underwater landslide off the coast of Norway triggered a massive tsunami that raced across the North Sea and slammed into the shores of what is now the United Kingdom. Entire coastal landscapes were wiped out, prehistoric communities vanished, and vast areas of land disappeared beneath the waves in a catastrophe known as the Storegga Slide tsunami. Now, new geological evidence and advanced seafloor mapping are helping scientists reconstruct the true scale of the disaster and reveal just how close Britain came to an even greater catastrophe. Join us as we uncover Britain’s lost tsunami disaster, explore the evidence hidden beneath the North Sea, and discover how this ancient megawave reshaped the history and geography of the British Isles.
Animation is created by Bright Side.
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Music from TheSoul Sound: https://thesoul-sound.com/

Why Do Birds Migrate Like This?

Buy the book: “Where the Animals Go: Tracking Wildlife with Technology in 50 Maps and Graphics” at http://www.wheretheanimalsgo.com

Copyright 2016 by James Cheshire and Oliver Uberti. First American Edition published by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. in 2017. First published in Great Britain in 2016 by Particular Books, an imprint of Penguin Books.

Migrating birds care more about the ease of their trip than the distance they travel, and that leads to some truly roundabout routes.

Thanks also to our supporters on https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth
___________________________________________

To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Migration: The seasonal movement of a population of animals from one area to another.
Prevailing winds: Winds in a particular area that blow in a particular direction.
Thermal: An upward current of warm air.
Lift: A force that counteracts the weight of an object and holds it in the air.
Flyway: A route regularly used by lots of migrating birds.
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Script Editor: Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Video Illustrator: Arcadi García
Video Director: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Horton, K., Van Doren, B., Stepanian, P.,Hochachka, W., Farnsworth, A., and Kelly, J. (2016). Nocturnally migrating songbirds drift when they can and compensate when they must. Scientific Reports 6, 1-8. Nature. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/srep21249

Kranstauber,B., Weinzierl, R., Wikelski, M., Safi, K. (2015). Global aerial flyways allow efficient travelling. Ecology Letters. 18: 133. Retrieved from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.12528/full

Liechti, F. (2006). Birds: blowin’ by the wind.Journal of Ornithology. 47: 202–211. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10336-006-0061-9.

Reddy, G., Celani, A., Sejnowski, T., and Vergassola, M. (2016). Learning to soar in turbulent environments. PNAS. 113(33):E4877-84. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27482099

Shamoun-Baranes, J., Leshem, Y., Yom-Tov, Y., and Liech, O. (2003). Differential use of thermal convection by soaring birds over central Israel. The Condor. 105:208-218. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1370541.

Leshem, Yossi. (2017) Professor of Life Science, Tel-Aviv University. Personal Communication.

You Have More Bones Than You Think

Go to https://www.curiositystream.com/minute to get a free month trial with CuriosityStream and get a subscription to Nebula bundled in for free!

Because the ossification process can differ so much from human to human, we have a wide range of potential bone numbers.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members.
___________________________________________
To learn more, start your googling with these keywords:
Cartilage: The flexible connective tissue that is turned to bone by osteoblasts.
Osteoblasts: Cells that control calcium and mineral deposition to turn cartilage into bone.
Sesamoids: Bones embedded in tendons or muscles.
Fabella: A large sesamoid bone occasionally found behind the knee joint.
Coccyx: The small set of semi-fused triangular bones at the end of the vertebral column.
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Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer, Editor and Video Director and Narrator: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg)
Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia (@garirius)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Sarah Berman
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

___________________________________________

References:

Goldberg I, Nathan H. (1987). Anatomy and pathology of the sesamoid bones. The hand compared to the foot. International Orthopaedics. 11(2):141-7. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3610408.

Vineet K. Sarin Gregory M. Erickson Nicholas J. Giori A. Gabrielle Bergman Dennis R. Carter (2003). Coincident development of sesamoid bones and clues to their evolution. The Anatomical Record.5: 174-180. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/%28SICI%291097-0185%2819991015%29257%3A5%3C174%3A%3AAID-AR6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-O.

Tao Sun, Lingxiang Wang, Haitao Zhao,Wenjuan Wu,and Wenhai Hu (2016). Prevalence, morphological variation and ossification of sesamoid bones of the forefoot: a retrospective radiographic study of 8,716 Chinese subjects. 2(3): 91–96. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6410651/.

Postacchini F, Massobrio M. (1983). Idiopathic coccygodynia: Analysis of fifty-one operative cases and a radiographic study of the normal coccyx. The Journal of bone and joint surgery. 65(8): 1116-1124. Retrieved from: https://www.coccyx.org/medabs/posta.htm.

Meals, Roy. (2019). Personal Communication. http://www.AboutBone.com

Giant Crack Beneath America Could Trigger a Megaquake

A giant fault off the west coast of North America is quietly building pressure beneath the Pacific Ocean. It’s called the Cascadia Subduction Zone, and scientists believe it could one day trigger a magnitude 9+ megathrust earthquake followed by a devastating tsunami. In this video, we explore the history of the 1700 Cascadia earthquake, mysterious silent earthquakes, ghost forests, slow-slip events, and why experts are closely monitoring one of the most dangerous fault lines on Earth.
Animation is created by Bright Side.
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Music from TheSoul Sound: https://thesoul-sound.com/

Our Atmosphere is Escaping!

Our planet is surrounded by a wispy-thin layer of gas that keeps us warm and allows weather to happen and basically makes all of life on Earth possible. Except… that precious atmosphere of ours is actually leaking, every second, into outer space

CREDITS
*********
Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Rose Eveleth, Emily Elert, and John Guittar.
Music by Nathaniel Schroeder: https://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

REFERENCES
**************
Atmospheric escape on Earth: https://faculty.washington.edu/dcatling/Catling2009_SciAm.pdf

Geysers: When Water Erupts!

Geysers are amazing natural formations that shoot magma-heated water from deep below the Earth’s surface! What could possibly be cooler than that?!

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Tumblr: http://scishow.tumblr.com
Instagram: http://instagram.com/thescishow

SOURCES:
https://www.yellowstonepark.com/things-to-do/about-old-faithful
http://geology.com/records/tallest-geyser.shtml
http://geology.com/articles/geyser.shtml
http://valleyofgeysers.com/

Are scientists going extinct?

AI programs are becoming better and better at small tasks. Should scientists worry?

Null Island: The Busiest Place That Doesn’t Exist (ft @TomScottGo )

Thanks to @TomScottGo for helping write and narrate this video. Check out his amazing channel:
https://www.youtube.com/TomScottGo

CREDITS
*********
Script Writer & Narrator: Tom Scott
Script Editor: Henry Reich
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar
Video Director: Emily Elert
With Contributions From: Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Peter Reich, Rachel Becker, David Goldenberg
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

IMAGE CREDITS
*****************
Photo of Null Island Buoy by: Jacques Grelet, IRD.fr

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REFERENCES
**************
http://www.jsonline.com/news/statepolitics/clerks-scrambling-to-get-voters-in-right-districts-3v3ov36-137102098.html

How To Avoid The Next Atlantis

A big thank you to AXA for sponsoring this video. Visit http://www.axa.com/resilience to learn more about their survey on how cities and businesses worldwide are adapting to climate-related challenges.

Thanks also to our Patreon patrons:
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___________________________________________

Credits (and Twitter handles):
Script Writer: Kate Yoshida (@KateYoshida) and Alex Reich (@alexhreich)
Script Editor: Emily Elert (@eelert)
Video Illustrator: Ever Salazar (@eversalazar)
Video Director and Narrator: Emily Elert (@eelert)
With Contributions From: Henry Reich (@minutephysics) and Peter Reich
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
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References:

Delta Works. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved October 8, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Works.

Flood control in the Netherlands. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved October 8, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_control_in_the_Netherlands.

IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp. http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/

Koch, E.W., Barbier, E.B., Silliman, B.R., Reed, D.J. et al. (2009). Non-linearity in ecosystem services: temporal and spatial variability in coastal protection. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7(1):29–37. http://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=iss_pub

Möller, I.; Kudella, M.; Rupprecht, F.; Spencer, T.; Paul, M.; van Wesenbeeck, B.K (2014). Wave attenuation over coastal salt marshes under storm surge conditions. Nature Geoscience 7: 727–731. http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v7/n10/full/ngeo2251.html

Moss, S. (2011, January 19). Weatherwatch: The Grote Mandrenke. The Guardian. http://www.theguardian.com/news/2011/jan/20/weatherwatch-grote-mandrenke

The Nature Conservancy (2015). Urban Coastal Resilience: Valuing Nature’s Role. https://tnc.app.box.com/s/9awez618538tf24rnu5mv73fkfa668mr/1/4092107687/34026668411/1

The World Bank Group (2011). Guide to Climate Change Adaptation in Cities. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/Resources/336387-1318995974398/GuideClimChangeAdaptCities.pdf

Image Credits:

Oahu Hawaii – Cristo Vlahos
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Waikiki_view_from_Diamond_Head.JPG

Port of Cape Town – Wikimedia user SkyPixels
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Port_of_Cape_Town.jpg

Hong Kong – Wikimedia user WiNG
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hong_Kong_Island_Skyline_2009.jpg

Perth Australia – Public Domain
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Perth_Skyline.jpg

Maeslantkering closed – World66.com
http://www.world66.com/europe/netherlands/lib/gallery/showimage?pic=europe/netherlands/new_waterway_storm

Hartelkering gesloten – Wikimedia user Quistnix
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spijkenisse_-_Hartelkering_gesloten.jpg

Oosterscheldekering-pohled – Vladimír Šiman
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oosterscheldekering-pohled.jpg

Haringvlietdam 2006 – Wikimedia user Quistnix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Haringvlietdam_2006_06_18-2.jpg

Jakarta’s flooded streets – VOA Indonesian Service (Public Domain)
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VOA_People_walk_through_Jakarta%27s_flooded_streets.jpg

Hurricane Patricia – NOAA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hurricane_Patricia_October_23,_2015,_GOES-15_visible_animation.gif

Permeable “Thirsty” concrete – Tarmac Ltd

Floating Utility Unit – DeltaSync/Blue21

B21 – Homepage

Rijnhavenpark – DeltaSync/Blue21

B21 – Homepage

Tracks and Storms – Robert Allison
http://robslink.com/

NYC Hurricane Evacuation Map – City of New York
http://maps.nyc.gov/hurricane/

The Difference between Pollen and Sperm

Pollen is often described as ‘plant sperm’, but it has some important differences! Like sperm, pollen contains one DNA set from its parent, but unlike sperm, pollen itself is actually its own separate living plant made of multiple cells that, under the right conditions, can live for months, depending on the species.

Why You’re More Likely To Die In Winter

There’s a huge seasonal difference in death rates that is propelled by a variety of factors including pathogen behavior and anatomical response to temperature changes.

LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Crude Death Rate: The number of people in a population of a 1,000 who die every year. The 2020 rate for the entire world is roughly 8.

If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
CGP Grey takes you through the first half of Death’s day: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QMNGEY8OZqo

Feedback on drafts by:
Julián Gustavo Gómez, Alex Reich, Henry Reich, Peter Reich, Ever Salazar and Kate Yoshida

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius
David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich
Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida

Website | https://minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

REFERENCES
**************
Robbie M Parks, James E Bennett, Kyle J Foreman, Ralf Toumi, Majid Ezzati (2018). National and regional seasonal dynamics of all-cause and cause-specific mortality in the USA from 1980 to 2016. eLife 2018;7:e35500. Retrieved from: https://elifesciences.org/articles/35500.

Roland Rau, Christina Bohk-Ewald, Magdalena M. Muszyńska, James W. Vaupel (2017). Seasonality of Causes of Death. Chapter in: Visualizing Mortality Dynamics in the Lexis Diagram. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-64820-0_9.

Dimitrios Seretakis; Pagona Lagiou, MD; Loren Lipworth, DSc; et al (1997). Changing Seasonality of Mortality From Coronary Heart Disease. JAMA, 278(12):1012-1014. Retrieved from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/418241.

W. R. Keatinge (2002) Winter mortality and its causes, International Journal of
Circumpolar Health, 61:4, 292-299. Retrieved from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3402/ijch.v61i4.17477

Average Daily Number of Deaths,* by Month — United States, 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/68/wr/mm6826a5.htm.

Do other planets also have Earthquakes? Moonquake?

Earth is not the only planet with quakes; the moon’s crust also expands, contracts, and quakes!

Plate Tectonics Explained

How do plate tectonics REALLY work?

Please support us on Patreon at: http://www.patreon.com/minuteearth

And subscribe! – http://www.youtube.com/user/minuteearth?sub_confirmation=1

Thanks to our Patreon patrons:
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________________________
Created by Henry Reich
Production and Writing Team: Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Emily Elert, Ever Salazar, Kate Yoshida, and Henry Reich
Music by Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder

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MinuteEarth provides an energetic and entertaining view of trends in earth’s environment — in just a few minutes!

________________________
References

Anderson, D. L. (2001). Top-down tectonics?. Science, 293(5537), 2016-2018. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/293/5537/2016.short

Conrad, C. P., & Lithgow-Bertelloni, C. (2002). How mantle slabs drive plate tectonics. Science, 298(5591), 207-209. ftp://128.171.151.230/engels/Stanley/Textbook_update/Science_298/Conrad-02.pdf

Conrad, C.P., 2014. Personal Communication

Dietz, R. S. (1961). Continent and ocean basin evolution by spreading of the sea floor. Nature, 190(4779), 854-857. http://eps.mcgill.ca/~courses/c350/lecturestuff/jan28/Dietz_1961.pdf

Forsyth, D., & Uyeda, S. (1975). On the relative importance of the driving forces of plate motion. Geophysical Journal International, 43(1), 163-200. http://gji.oxfordjournals.org/content/43/1/163.short

Hecht, J. 2014, Aug 29. Earth’s tectonic plates have doubled their speed. New Scientist. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22329843.000-earths-tectonic-plates-have-doubled-their-speed.html#.VBDAJ7ywJ_Q

Smil, V. 2007. Energy in Nature and Society: General Energetics of Complex Systems. MIT Press. http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/energy-nature-and-society

Driving forces of plate tectonics (website):
http://www.columbia.edu/~vjd1/driving_forces_basic.htm

Earth’s Next Mega-Disaster Could Come From This Supervolcano

Geologists have reconstructed the terrifying mechanism behind a massive supervolcano hidden beneath New Zealand that once buried the entire country under nine meters of ash. Around 350,000 years ago, this highly active region, known as the Taupō Volcanic Zone, triggered a catastrophic supereruption when five giant underground magma reservoirs exploded simultaneously. Today, this exact same volcanic system remains one of the most volatile and dangerous on Earth, posing a very real threat of a future global mega-disaster. Researchers have discovered that the incredibly fast buildup of molten rock before these supereruptions is far more frightening and unpredictable than previously expected. Click the video to explore the groundbreaking science behind New Zealand’s ticking geological time bomb and find out if humanity can avoid being caught off guard by the planet’s next massive volcanic blast.

This is the AI tool behind it → https://higgsfield.ai/s/general-brightsideofficial-kDdKTb

Animation is created by Bright Side.
—————————————————————————————-
Music from TheSoul Sound: https://thesoul-sound.com/

Why the Mississippi River Flowed Backwards

In 1812, something extraordinary happened in North America: parts of the mighty Mississippi River suddenly began flowing backwards. The bizarre event was triggered by a series of massive earthquakes centered near New Madrid, Missouri, among the most powerful ever recorded in the continental United States. The shaking was so intense that it lifted and dropped sections of land, created new lakes, altered the landscape, and temporarily forced the Mississippi to reverse direction in certain areas. Witnesses described violent ground movement, collapsing riverbanks, and enormous waves racing upstream as the river reacted to the sudden geological upheaval. Join us as we explore the incredible disaster that made the Mississippi flow backwards, how the New Madrid earthquakes reshaped the heart of America, and why scientists still monitor the region today.

This is the AI tool behind it → https://higgsfield.ai/s/general-brightsideofficial-kDdKTb

Credit:
Hurricane Isaac by Night: By NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA/NOAA, Earth Observatory – http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=79018, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=21073933
FireStation21MemphisTN: By Jonathunder, GFDL 1.2 – http://www.gnu.org/licenses/old-licenses/fdl-1.2.html, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15002297
CC BY 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0:
Reelfoot Lake Tennessee: By Charles Skip Martin – https://500px.com/photo/30212123/reelfoot-lake-tennessee-by-charles-skip-martin, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=71314732
Fire Station No 1 Memphis TN: By Thomas R Machnitzki, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26206962
CC BY 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0:
2350791131 ScollaySq: By BPL – https://flic.kr/p/4zJqiz, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7703172
CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/:
New Madrid Seismic Zone activity 1974-2011: By Kbh3rd, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17858804
StLouis1846 SLAM 4059: By Henry Lewis, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15393386
CC BY-SA 2.5 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5:
Reelfoot Lake: By JeremyA, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=644906
Animation is created by Bright Side.

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Music from TheSoul Sound: https://thesoul-sound.com/

Can Dogs Affect Our Health? 🐶

Dogs are great companions, AND having them around reduces the chance of developing allergies ❤️

Which is Worse?

A broken bone might seem worse than a sprain, but you’ll get over it much more quickly.

LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Aqueous humour: The clear fluid filling the space in the front of the eyeball between the lens and the cornea.
Bone remodeling: The continuous process of synthesis and destruction that gives bone its mature structure and maintains normal calcium levels in the body.
Ligament: A short band of tough, flexible fibrous connective tissue which connects two bones or cartilages or holds together a joint.
Sprain: A stretching or tearing of ligaments.

CREDITS
*********
Cameron Duke (@dukeofcam) | Script Writer
Kate Yoshida | Script Editor, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

Website | https://minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

REFERENCES
**************
Landzhov, B. (2015). The Epiligament-The Main Donor of Cells and Vessels during Healing Of the Collateral Ligaments of the Knee. Anatomy & Physiology, s4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0940.s4-006

Leong, N. L., Kator, J. L., Clemens, T. L., James, A., Enamoto‐Iwamoto, M., & Jiang, J. (2019). Tendon and Ligament Healing and Current Approaches to Tendon and Ligament Regeneration. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 38(1), 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.24475

Marsell, R., & Einhorn, T. A. (2011). The biology of fracture healing. Injury, 42(6), 551–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2011.03.031

Martini, F., Nath, J. L., & Bartholomew, E. F. (2018). Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology (11th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.

Smith, P., & Bollier, M. (2014). Anterior Cruciate Ligament and Medial Collateral Ligament Injuries. Journal of Knee Surgery, 27(05), 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1381961

How to Escape a Rip Current

There are two recommended ways to escape a rip current:
1: try to swim to the side
2: stay calm while the current takes you towards the ocean and swim towards the side, then the beach when the current is calmer.

The Only Country That Sits on Two Continents Is Splitting in Half

Iceland is the only country on Earth where you can stand directly between two continents—and those continents are slowly pulling apart. The island sits atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the longest mountain range on the planet, stretching more than 40,000 miles across the ocean floor and marking the boundary between the North American and Eurasian tectonic plates. Every year, these massive plates drift farther apart, tearing Iceland open at a rate of roughly 2 to 2.5 centimeters and creating dramatic landscapes filled with volcanoes, earthquakes, and deep fissures. While the movement seems tiny on a human timescale, it is the same unstoppable geological process that spent the last 60 million years opening the entire Atlantic Ocean. Join us as we explore why Iceland is literally splitting in half, how it became one of the most unique places on Earth, and what this incredible geological phenomenon reveals about the forces shaping our planet.

This is the AI tool behind it → https://higgsfield.ai/s/general-brightsideofficial-kDdKTb
Credit:
CC BY 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0:
Bridge between two continents: By josef knecht, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=54422531
CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/:
Tectonic plates (2022): By M.Bitton, Hasterok, Derrick (8 June 2022). New maps of global geological provinces and tectonic plates. American Institute of Physics – https://phys.org/news/2022-06-global-geological-provinces-tectonic-plates.html, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=130076176
Bridge across continents iceland: By Chris 73, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=892776
CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0:
Cañón Silfra: By Diego Delso, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37290290
Cañón Flosagja: By Diego Delso, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37290278
Yellowstone Caldera fr: By Simon Villeneuve, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=40754134
Animation is created by Bright Side.

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Music from TheSoul Sound: https://thesoul-sound.com/

How This River Made Chimps Violent

When a group of apes got split apart, slight differences in their new environments led to big differences in future generations.

LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
– Chimpanzee: A great ape native to tropical Africa that is one of humanity’s closest living relatives.
– Bonobo: A slightly smaller great ape native to tropical Africa that is one of humanity’s closest living relatives.
– Speciation: A lineage-splitting event in which a population of the same species becomes two different species.
– Allopatric speciation: Speciation that occurs when populations of the same species get isolated geographically.
– Hominini: The taxonomical classification that includes humans, chimps, and bonobos.
– Pan: The taxonomical classification that includes chimps and bonobos.
– Chimpobo: A name we just made up to identify the common ancestor of the chimpanzee and bonobo.
– Congo river: The deepest river in the world and the second largest (behind the Amazon) in discharge volume.
– G-G Rubbing: A form of genital to genital contact bonobos sometimes use to form social bonds.

CREDITS
*********
Writer, Director, and Narrator: David Goldenberg
Video Illustrator: Sarah Berman
With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Kate Yoshida, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Arcadi Garcia Rius
Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder
VHS Rewind effect based on footage by http://www.anfx.co

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

REFERENCES
**************
Caswell, J., Mallick, S., Richter, D., Neubauer, J., Schirmer, C., Gnerre, S., Reich, D. (2008). Analysis of Chimpanzee History Based on Genome Sequence Alignments. PLoS Genetics. 4(4): e1000057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1000057

Takemoto H, Kawamoto Y, Furuichi T. (2015). How Did Bonobos Come to Range South of the Congo River? Reconsideration of the Divergence of Pan paniscus from Other Pan Populations. Evolutionary Anthropology. 24:170–184. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26478139

Prufer, K. et al (2012). The Bonobo Genome Compared with the Chimpanzee and Human Genomes. Nature. 486: 527–531. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11128

Hey, J. (2010). The Divergence of Chimpanzee Species and Subspecies as Revealed in Multipopulation Isolation-with-Migration Analyses. Molecular Biology and Evolution. 27(4): 921-933. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2877540/

Stanford, C. (2019). Personal Communication. Professor of Anthropology and Biological Sciences, University of Southern California.

What is Freezer Burn?

Why do ice cubes shrink, ice cream get frosty, and vegetables dry out in the freezer? FREEZER BURN!

CREDITS
*********
Created by Henry Reich, with Alex Reich, Peter Reich, Rose Eveleth, Emily Elert, and John Guittar.
Music by Nathaniel Schroeder: https://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder
Thanks to ScienceAlert for support – https://www.sciencealert.com

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

REFERENCES
**************
Frost flowers: https://www.itg.cam.ac.uk/people/grae/90.pdf

Why are humans the only animals to wipe their butt?

Humans are strange animals for many, many reasons. One of them is that we are the only ones to wipe our butt.
But why do we need this?

How Tall Can Mountains Be?

What is the maximum height for a mountain on Earth!? And why?

MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
https://neptunestudios.info

REFERENCES
**************
Scheuer, P. A. G. 1981. How High Can A Mountain Be? J. Astrophys. Astr. 2: 165–169. http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jaa/2/165-169.pdf